The One Being and Metaphysics – PARMENIDES

Parmenides of Elea (c. 510–440 BCE), the founder of the Eleatic school of philosophy, is one of the central figures of ancient Greek philosophy. He is regarded as the creator of metaphysics, primarily due to his work On Nature.

What is Metaphysics?

Metaphysics is a branch of philosophy that studies existence, reality, and the nature of the world. It seeks answers to questions like:
• “How does the world exist?”
• “What is the origin of what exists?”
• “What is the nature of reality?”
• “Does God or do gods exist?”

Together with logic, ethics, and epistemology, metaphysics forms the foundation of philosophy.
If we take a brief look at the history of metaphysics, its beginnings can be traced back to the Milesian school of philosophy. The theories of Thales, Anaximander, and Anaximenes about the origins of the cosmos, the primary substance it is made of, and the governing laws are among the first examples of metaphysics. However, metaphysics as a distinct mode of thought first emerged in the philosophy of Parmenides. He was the first to attempt understanding the cosmos through logical inquiry and reasoning. This approach was distinct from the empirical natural sciences and the prevailing philosophical traditions of his time.

Many philosophers consider metaphysics as the first philosophy, or true philosophy, reflecting its enduring relevance from ancient times to the present. In his 1781 work, Critique of Pure Reason, Immanuel Kant offers profound insights into metaphysics, stating: “Human cognition faces a peculiar fate: it is surrounded by questions posed by its own nature, questions it cannot evade; yet it finds itself unable to answer them, as they surpass the limits of human understanding.”

Kant argues that cognition finds itself in this predicament due to its own tendencies. It begins with principles grounded in experience—principles that are both practical and sufficiently validated by experience. Relying on these, it progresses toward increasingly abstract foundations. However, as new questions continually arise, cognition realizes that its task is far from complete. It ventures into realms beyond the boundaries of possible experience, seeking ever more fundamental truths.
These foundational concepts appear so self-evident to human cognition that they are readily accepted. Yet, as it delves further, cognition finds itself lost in darkness, mired in contradictions. This situation often leads to the suspicion of hidden errors, yet these errors remain undetectable, as they exist beyond the scope of empirical evidence and defy empirical criteria. Kant refers to this endless battleground of debates as metaphysics.

Thus, following Kant, metaphysics came to be understood as speculation about questions that cannot be addressed through experiment or scientific observation.

Parmenides, a student of Xenophanes, contemplates existence and cognition, specifically the nature of thought itself. He poses questions such as, “What is the origin of thought?” and “Where should thought begin?” This marks the first instance in the history of philosophy where such inquiries are made. Cognition, according to Parmenides, arises from thought itself. Hegel even attributes the creation of philosophy to Parmenides, as his efforts initiated the self-reflection of thought.

It is known that early philosophers theorized that existence originates from a single substance. Thales believed this substance to be water, Anaximander thought it was apeiron (the infinite or indefinite), Anaximenes proposed air, and Heraclitus suggested fire. In each case, a singular principle was deemed the foundation of existence. However, the observable world consists of a multitude of objects, leading to the first philosophical conflict: the antagonism between unity (oneness) and plurality (multiplicity). This debate sparked centuries of discourse.

This initial conflict gave rise to a second: the tension between permanence and change. If a singular principle underpins the world, it implies stability, yet the multitude of objects suggests variability through change. Both antagonisms profoundly influenced the trajectory of philosophy. Parmenides chose unity and permanence, laying the groundwork for debates that would persist across generations of philosophers.

“Existence is all there is. Existence did not originate from anything, for otherwise, it would have emerged from non-existence. However, non-existence does not exist,” states Parmenides. He argues that existence is infinite because, if it were not, it would have to transform into non-existence, which is neither real nor possible. Existence has no beginning or end. Why? Because if it had a beginning, there would have to be non-existence before it, and if it had an end, non-existence would follow it—but non-existence does not exist. Existence is only the present moment. It is unified, unchanging, and perfect.

Parmenides’ ideas place him in direct opposition to Heraclitus, who advocates for plurality and eternal change. Heraclitus bases his theory on empirical observations, with sensory perception playing a key role. Parmenides, on the other hand, relies solely on thought. For him, only reason can provide accurate knowledge, while the senses are deceptive. Thus, the study of existence should rely exclusively on thought and deduction. Deduction, according to Parmenides, reveals that existence is singular and immutable. This will later be defended by Zeno of Elea, who aims to prove it through his paradoxes.

Parmenides’ philosophy in one sentence: non-existence gives rise to nothing.
Thought and thinking are also forms of existence because it is impossible to think about what does not exist. Thinking and being are one and the same process. According to Parmenides, the senses are imprecise, and the sole criterion for truth is intellect. Mortals—humans—hold no truth in their opinions. The everyday physical perception of the world is mistaken, asserts the philosopher from Elea. Reality is a singular existence: unchanging and imperishable.

By distinguishing between reality and its appearance, Parmenides plays a significant role in the development of mind-body dualism. This dualism explores the relationship between the mind and the body, supporting the notion that the mind, unlike the body, is immaterial and can exist separately.

Parmenides is also one of the first philosophers to deduce that the Earth is spherical. Furthermore, he discovered that the Moon shines by reflecting the Sun’s light. Modern science has confirmed this. The Moon, Earth’s natural satellite, has a dark, dull gray surface, which reflects only 5–18% of the sunlight that reaches it (https://astronomy.stackexchange.com). When the Moon moves into Earth’s shadow, it receives no sunlight at all. In astronomy, this phenomenon is called a lunar eclipse.

Parmenides influences all of Western philosophy over time. Even Zeno of Elea, Plato, Spinoza, Leibniz, Heidegger, and even Nietzsche, who created the ‘Übermensch,’ show the impact of the Eleatic philosopher in their work, millennia later.