Philosophy – Science – Transhumanism

The great Nietzsche calls out to humanity with these words in his central work Thus Spoke Zarathustra: Zarathustra turned to the people and said: “I teach you the overman. Man is something that shall be overcome. What have you done to overcome him?… All beings so far have created something beyond themselves; and do you want to be the ebb of this great flood, and even go back to the beasts rather than overcome man? What is ape to man? A laughing stock or painful embarrassment. And man shall be that to overman: a laughingstock or painful embarrassment. You have made your way from worm to man, and much in you is still worm. Once you were apes, and even now, too, man is more ape than any ape… The overman is the meaning of the earth. Let your will say: the overman shall be the meaning of the earth… Man is a rope, tied between beast and overman—a rope over an abyss … what is great in man is that he is a bridge and not an end.”

Zarathustra asks the question: What is a monkey in the eyes of man? His answer is ridicule, a painful shame. So, for the overhuman, man should be such a thing: an object of ridicule, a painful shame – says Nietzsche’s prophet. You have transformed from a worm to a human, yet look how many floods and waters have flowed, but have you been able to rid yourself of the worm-like nature? Once upon a time, man was a monkey – Zarathustra reminds us – even now, the monkey nature within man still astounds every monkey. The wisest among you is nothing but a mix of turmoil and the plant-like nightmare. I am not calling you to become a nightmare or a plant. I want to teach you about the overhuman! The overhuman is the meaning of the world. Let your will say this: The overhuman must be the meaning of the world!’ – Zarathustra cries out.”

Nietzsche calls on man to climb beyond himself, to be superior. He calls to the overman. The overman is strong and fearless. He is the ideal of man, the etalon. He is superior to the masses. He is the synthesis of iron will and intellect.

Of course, Nietzsche’s call is in a romantic form, but this form does not change its essence. It doesn’t change to any significant extent. Philosophy has been contemplating the future of man and humanity since ancient times. These thoughts, in various forms, share the same goal – a higher man than the present one. The next form of man. With the development of science, this thought gains the potential to become reality.

One of the reasons philosophy came into being is to find or determine the meaning of life. This is one of the oldest questions and not the only goal of philosophy. Thus, there are many answers. But perhaps, none of them are true. Because a person must determine the meaning of their own life. Any idea that proposes a universal meaning of life for all mankind is wrong. They are unworthy of life. Of course, philosophy can be helpful here, perhaps the greatest helper. Philosophy can help define what man is and the purpose of his existence. It can guide the way.

The rapid development of science has created the possibility to provide new and broader answers to questions such as, ‘What is the meaning of life?’, ‘Should we live?’, ‘Why should we?’. Technology has even provided the prospect of making life longer and even eternal. This, however, raises the problem of meaning and purpose, making it even more prominent, centralized, and elevated.

Science played a dual game with man. It showed both the weakness and strength of humanity. ‘How?’ you might ask. Copernicus removed the Earth from the center of the universe. Galileo showed that it is just an ordinary planet revolving around a common star. His telescope revealed the infinite grandeur of the heavens to the human eye. What Darwin did is well known to all. Science told us that man, chained to a mere fragment of stone revolving around an ordinary star in the boundless cosmos, is just an ordinary creature.

Seeing this, the French philosopher Michel de Montaigne placed humanity’s intelligence under a great question: ‘Let him—man—show me, with the help of his mind, the great advantages he claims for himself. Who convinced man that the marvelous motion of the heavens, the eternal light falling from the objects spinning above his head, the terrifying roar of the infinite sea—everything, all of it—is created only for him, for his comfort and service, and has existed for centuries? Isn’t it absurd that this insignificant and wretched being, who cannot even govern himself and is subjected to all the blows of chance, declares himself the ruler of the Universe, which he cannot even understand a tiny piece of, let alone control it!’

But science gave man the chance to overcome his weakness. It provided him the possibility to even influence chance. Within just a few centuries, through science, man reached outer space. He saw the limits of our world and surpassed them. He looked at himself from the outside. Now, technology allows man to surpass even himself.

Man may be facing perhaps the greatest choice of his existence—whether to cling to his ego and continue to walk in place, sinking a little deeper with each step, or to evolve to a new stage of humanity and spread wings across the cosmos. Of course, the choice is his, but philosophy is his most useful weapon. Because philosophy ignites the brain, fuels it, and illuminates it. As long as it is true.

Carl Sagan says the following about the “Pale Blue Dot” that shows the place of our world in the Universe: “From this distant vantage point, the Earth might not seem of any particular interest. But for us, it’s different. Consider again that dot. That’s here, that’s home, that’s us. On it everyone you love, everyone you know, everyone you ever heard of, every human being who ever was, lived out their lives. The aggregate of our joy and suffering, thousands of confident religions, ideologies, and economic doctrines, every hunter and forager, every hero and coward, every creator and destroyer of civilization, every king and peasant, every young couple in love, every mother and father, hopeful child, inventor and explorer, every teacher of morals, every corrupt politician, every “superstar,” every “supreme leader,” every saint and sinner in the history of our species lived there—on the mote of dust suspended in a sunbeam.”

The next stage of humanity was described by technology and philosophy. From their synthesis, a new concept – transhumanism – was born.

Transhumanism suggests using science and technology to enhance the physical and intellectual capabilities of humans. As a result, a new type of human—the posthuman—must emerge. “The only true happiness in life is striving forward,” says Émile Zola. This is true, as the opposite—inaction—is equivalent to death. It leads to degeneration. But we will discuss this in more detail later. First, we need to talk about technology.

In 1450, Johann Gutenberg revolutionized book printing. The German inventor’s use of movable metal plates in printing had a revolutionary effect. Information that was known or would be known could now be preserved in written form. As a result, the collection and dissemination of knowledge accelerated. The masses gained the opportunity to acquire knowledge. In just half a century, more than twenty million books were printed. The scientific revolution was approaching, and the possibility of mass accessibility was emerging.

At the beginning of the 17th century, Wilhelm Schickard created the mechanical calculator. Pascal and Leibniz improved this technology. The first mechanical calculator was capable of performing basic arithmetic operations.

In the second half of the century, Otto von Hericke constructed an electrical machine. As a result, the German physicist discovered electrical repulsion, in addition to the known electrical attraction. The logical development of the first electrical experiments through amber by Thales of Miletus is realized.

English inventor James Hargreaves created the spinning jenny. The industrial revolution was rapidly approaching. The hot air balloon and the steam engine were invented. James Watt developed the universal steam engine. By the end of the 18th century, Claude Chappe invented the optical telegraph, which allowed information to be transmitted over long distances. The internal combustion engine was also created. The development of science and technology had become unstoppable. Humanity was rushing toward the future with giant steps.

In 1833, English mathematician Charles Babbage laid the foundation for the analytical engine, which is considered the prototype of the modern computer. Technology was stepping into a new era. Telegraph lines were laid under the ocean, and the telephone was invented.

In the mid-20th century, the first forms of modern computers were created, and by the end of the century, powerful supercomputers with high computational power and speed were developed. The main goal of these computers was to perform maximum calculations in minimal time.

Humankind decided to imbue iron with consciousness. The concept of artificial intelligence took shape and developed along a zigzag trajectory.

Artificial intelligence is the intelligence demonstrated by machines. In simple terms, artificial intelligence is the artificial creation of human intelligence. It is the simulation of human intellect by machines. Machines with artificial consciousness can now understand human speech, drive cars, win against humans in high-strategy games like Chess and Go, and analyze large volumes of complex data.

In 1996, the first confrontation took place between the Deep Blue supercomputer and world chess champion Garry Kasparov. The supercomputer, capable of calculating 100 million positions per second, defeated the strongest chess player of its time by a score of 4:2. Human intelligence triumphed overall in this confrontation. The following year, a double-powered computer won in a rematch against Kasparov. Thus, for the first time, a computer defeated the world’s strongest chess player.

However, the computer won primarily through computational power. This was still not true thinking. Deep Blue used a method called “brute force” in scientific terms. This method involves calculating all possible variations of a problem and choosing the most optimal one.

The first human-like game was demonstrated by another supercomputer, Deep Junior, in 2003. The match against Kasparov ended in a draw. Technology showed its power. Artificial intelligence moved a little further away from being purely artificial. The computer now uses not only computational power but also memory. All played games and combinations are stored in memory, and during the game, optimal strategies are formed by utilizing this database.

In chess, the chances of a human winning against a computer are minimal, as the number of possible positions is so vast that calculating them would take thousands of years. In checkers, however, the chances of a human winning against a computer no longer exist. By the early 21st century, computers could calculate all possible combinations in checkers and knew the optimal moves for each position. As a result, defeating the computer in this game is neither theoretically nor practically possible.

However, this is just the beginning. In 2016, in the more complex game of Go, the world’s best player at the time, Korean Lee Sedol, faced the AlphaGo program developed by Google DeepMind. Go, with a history spanning three millennia, has a number of possible combinations 10^171 times greater than the number of atoms in the observable universe, which contains around two trillion galaxies. The confrontation ended with a 4-1 victory for the computer.

Unlike Deep Blue and Deep Junior, AlphaGo operates on artificial neural networks. These networks, resembling human cognition, make hypotheses, form strategies, and possess abstract thinking. The most important feature is that the neural network can learn. While earlier supercomputers stored information in memory and used it to choose optimal variants, AlphaGo, thanks to its neural network, constantly learns, analyzes, and adapts. The program derives conclusions from the data and makes independent decisions, much like the human brain. We will discuss this further later.

The idea and projects of artificial intelligence originated in ancient times. In Greek mythology, there are references to beings created from iron that possess consciousness. Over time, along with philosophy and science, the concept of artificial intelligence developed as well. Aristotle wrote Organon, which compiles the philosopher’s logical teachings. In Organon, Aristotle describes syllogism—conclusions drawn through deduction from two or more premises. Organon has a profound impact on philosophy and logic. In their scientific works, George Boole and Gottlob Frege laid the foundation of mathematical logic based on Aristotle’s teachings.

Bacon wrote Novum Organum, in which the English philosopher established the basis for the inductive method. Unlike deduction, this logical method derives general principles from specific instances. Induction can be better understood with the following example: The sun will eventually perish; the sun is a star; therefore, all stars will eventually perish. As you can see, induction is the opposite process of deduction.

Now, let’s return to the development of technology. Pascal created the first digital calculating machine, a mechanical calculator. Leibniz invented the binary number system, which is used by modern computers. French philosopher and physician Lamettrie declared that human thought is a mechanical process.

In the next century, George Boole created “Boolean logic.” With this, the English mathematician established the foundation for mathematical logic, combining algebra and logic, and using algebraic methods to solve logical problems. In the early 20th century, Spanish mathematician and engineer Leonardo Torres de Quevedo built El Ajedrecista, the first chess-playing machine, which can be considered the first computer game.

The theoretical foundation of computer science is laid. In 1941, German engineer Konrad Zuse built the first programmable computer. Just a few years later, the theoretical foundations for artificial neural networks and game theory were established. In the middle of the century, Alan Turing’s Computing Machinery and Intelligence accelerated the evolution of artificial intelligence.

By this point, tests are being created to measure machine intelligence. The Turing Test compares computer thinking to human thought. The possibility of an electronic brain becomes more plausible.

The Turing Test, also known as the “Imitation Game,” proposes the following experiment: a human communicates in writing with both another human and a computer. The participants do not see each other. The person conducting the experiment does not know which answers come from the human and which come from the computer. If, based on the answers, the experimenter cannot distinguish between the responses of the human and the computer, the computer is considered to have passed the test.

Artificial Intelligence (AI) differs from regular technology in that it has the potential to eventually perfect itself. When that happens, it may become a truly conscious being.

Philosophy has always played an active role in the development of artificial intelligence. From a philosophical standpoint, intellectual machines raise many questions: Are they possible? Can a machine solve problems that humans solve with consciousness? Are intellectual machines dangerous?

Science and philosophy search for answers and possible solutions to these questions.

However, philosophy’s interest in artificial intelligence also stems from its inherent pursuit of wisdom. Wisdom is the combination of intellect, consciousness, and understanding. It represents a high level of intellect and its correct application. For centuries, philosophy has analyzed the human intellect, and it now extends this same curiosity toward its offspring, artificial intelligence. From its inception to its final form, philosophy closely observes AI. The way artificial intelligence thinks and its form remain central to philosophical inquiry. The prospect of artificial consciousness taking on a natural form only intensifies this fascination.

Naturalness, or human-likeness, seems more plausible thanks to artificial neural networks mentioned above. These networks are based on biological neural systems, modeling them. In artificial neural networks, each artificial neuron is a model of a biological neuron. These neurons receive signals, process them, and pass the results to other neurons, much like biological neurons. Since the beginning of this century, the large-scale application of this technology has significantly accelerated and diversified the development of artificial intelligence.

The primary goal of artificial neural networks is to model the function of the human nervous system, enabling the network to learn like a human and correct its mistakes. The neural network itself must learn and make decisions based on prior experience. Each subsequent decision should be wiser than the previous one.

Neural networks are used to solve complex problems that require analytical computations. Working much like the human brain, these networks address issues such as decision-making, image recognition, data classification and clustering, data analysis, forecasting, optimization, and more.

The most significant feature and advantage of artificial neural networks is the learning ability mentioned above. This capability makes it possible to use them for solving problems where the solving algorithm is unknown.

In 2017, Google DeepMind’s AlphaZero computer program, thanks to deep learning, learned chess, Go, and Shogi (Japanese chess) to a perfect level in just 24 hours. Afterward, it defeated the strongest programs in these games.

AlphaZero triumphed over the world’s strongest chess program, Stockfish, after just 4 hours of “self-play” training. Unlike Deep Blue, which was specifically designed to play chess or other games, AlphaZero wasn’t initially programmed with strategies or tactics. Instead, it learned these through artificial neural networks and deep learning, playing against itself and ultimately defeating Stockfish, a program with far superior computational power.

Thus, Stockfish, which is trained by humans, calculates 60 million potential combinations per second and selects the optimal one. On the other hand, AlphaZero, which learns by itself, analyzes about 60,000 combinations per second and selects the optimal variant based on the overall strategy. A similar proportion is observed in Go as well. As we can see, deep neural networks successfully compensate for the vast difference in computational power and emerge victorious from these encounters, even after just a few hours of learning.

While Deep Blue and Stockfish analyze and calculate optimal moves by processing 150 years of known chess data, AlphaZero learns this data in just a few hours by playing against itself based on standard rules. It even demonstrates more human-like play, sometimes opting for simple moves and observing the opponent’s reactions before selecting the optimal variant.

This technology, which learns in a human-like manner, makes decisions based on intuition and experience, constantly attracts the interest of philosophy due to its resemblance to natural intelligence.

The advancement of technology and science inevitably leads humanity to the next stage. Since the late 19th century, scientific and technological knowledge has doubled approximately every 15 years. By the end of this century, it is expected that the technological singularity will occur. At this point, technological progress will accelerate so rapidly that it will be beyond human comprehension and influence. Only posthumans, through transhumanism, could save humanity in such a situation.

Transhumanism aims to use science and technology to make humans intellectually and physically stronger, potentially even immortal. For this, the latest achievements in science and technology, including nanotechnology and artificial intelligence, should be employed. Transhumanism doesn’t just seek to extend human life, eliminate diseases, and enhance intelligence. It demands that humans create colonies on other planets and expand into space.

Starting from the representatives of the Milesian school, pre-Socratic philosophers form the basis for the scientific and logical explanation of the world. The material world becomes clear as something over which humans can be the masters.

Socrates and his followers place humanity at the center of philosophy. The Renaissance revives ancient Greek philosophy and culture. Humanism becomes one of the central pillars of this revival, placing human thought and logic above ignorance. Humanism creates a concept of a knowledgeable, moral, and harmonious human. Mirandolla argues that humans are not born in a fixed form; instead, they must create themselves in whatever form they desire. This thought strengthens even further during the Age of Enlightenment, as rapid advancements in science reinforce the belief that this can be achieved.

French philosopher and mathematician Condorcet discusses the possibility of extending human life and approaching immortality. He believes that, through education and science, humanity could one day escape from wars, diseases, and hunger.

Posthumanism, or the concept of the “posthuman,” emerges as the next logical step in the transhumanist vision. It goes beyond human existence as we know it, envisioning a future where humans transcend their biological limitations entirely. Posthumans would be individuals who have undergone transformations, often through advanced technology, that enhance their intellectual, physical, and emotional capacities to the point of being unrecognizable from current human beings. This transformation might involve genetic engineering, merging with machines, or even creating entirely new forms of consciousness.

Posthumanism, in its most extreme form, suggests that humans could evolve into beings that no longer rely on the biological constraints of the human body, achieving levels of intelligence and abilities far beyond current human potential. These beings might live in digital or artificially created environments, as their consciousness could be transferred from biological substrates to machines, potentially granting them immortality.

This vision is not without controversy, as it raises ethical questions about the loss of human essence and identity. Moreover, the idea of a posthuman society implies that those who do not undergo these transformations could be left behind, potentially leading to a division between the “posthumans” and the “humans,” with vast implications for inequality and social justice.

Ultimately, posthumanism challenges the boundaries of what it means to be human, proposing a future where technology enables humanity to evolve in ways that blur the lines between human, machine, and even new forms of life altogether.

What about Posthuman ?

The next stage of transhumanism is posthumanism. Posthuman will be a new form of humanity that follows the human, radically different from the previous one. It is the human after the human. Its form and philosophy are not yet fully known. The primary goal of science and philosophy is to make this clear. Philosophy plays a crucial role here, because science will build the posthuman, while philosophy must provide the reason and purpose for this process.

Science is responsible for how the posthuman will be created, while philosophy is responsible for why it will be created.

One of the possible and perhaps the most ideal forms of posthuman is the symbiosis of classical humans and artificial intelligence — their combination. Given the use of modern technology by humans, it can be said that this symbiosis has already been created.

In the future, chips implanted in the human brain will overcome many diseases, including visual and auditory disorders, paralysis, dementia, Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, and depression. This is just the first stage. Over time, such technology will also enhance the power of the human brain and raise its physical limits. It is at this point that the new human — the posthuman — will be born.

The implant created by Neuralink has already been successfully tested on animals, meaning it will soon be ready for human use. The Neuralink implant stands out from others due to its size and functionality. The initial use of the implant is for medical purposes. People with paralysis will be able to control mobile phones and computers with their minds thanks to this implant placed in their brains.

Of course, this is just the beginning. In the future, it is expected that the implant will be able to fix every deficiency in the brain. Over time, humans will connect to the internet with their minds through the implant, and will be able to upload books and even completely new languages into their brains. They will have the ability to communicate telepathically with other people, record their dreams and watch them again. Most importantly, humans will gain access to significantly enhanced intelligence. Neuralink’s main goal is to create a human who will be able to compete with the supermachines of the future that possess artificial intelligence.